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■Bio-mathematics, Statistics and Nano-Technologies: Mosquito Control Strategies

is only the adult females that bite and suck blood, excluding several species of Toxorhyn-

chites. Adult mosquitos are the number one most dangerous animals to kill and detriment

the health of humans and other animals because many species act as pathogen vectors and

transmit different diseases such as yellow fever, dengue, zika, chikungunya, West Nile, St.

Louis encephalitis (SLE), Japanese type B encephalitis, eastern and western equine en-

cephalitis (EEE & WEE), lymphatic filariasis, and malaria (AMCA 2017). mosquitos also

cause annoying nuisance problems and economic losses due to host-seeking and blood-

sucking behaviors. Therefore, control and management of vector and pest mosquito pop-

ulations are critical for the protection of both public health and the quality of life. This

chapter provides a description of concepts, principle, major methods and tools for the

control of pest and vector mosquitos in addition to the terminology and components of

Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM), Integrated

Vector Management (IVM), and Best Management Practices (BMP).

2.2

CONTROL METHODS/TOOLS

2.2.1

Immature Stage Control

Traditional methods to control immature mosquito stages focus on Source Reduction.

The simple principle is NO WATER AND NO MOSQUITOS due to the necessity of water

for egg hatching and larval/pupal growth. Prevention of mosquito breeding is one of the

most effective and permanent measures to control larvae through techniques of (1) ditching,

impounding, and filling to eliminate standing water (Lloyd et al. 2018), (2) emptying wa-

ter from containers and/or covering up open containers to prevent gravid female mosquitos

from laying eggs, or (3) directly restricting and killing mosquito larvae and emerged adult

mosquitos. For egg control, there are several kinds of Mechanical or Physical Control

methods , such as commercially available ovitraps or lethal ovitraps (Xue et al., 2021).

For larval control, several species of mosquito larvae have siphons that attach to the roots

of aquatic weeds and plants to obtain oxygen, and thus the control of these larval stage

mosquitos is directly related to the management of the aquatic plants. However, the most ef-

fective method for general larval control is Chemical Control via application of larvicides

such as organophosphates (temephos), pyrethroid insecticides, biopesticides or microbial

larvicides (Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (BTi), Bacillus sphaericus, and Spinosad), in-

sect growth regulators (methoprene, pyriproxyfen, and diflubenzuron), or even surface oil

and monomolecular surface films for both pupal and larval control. Such insecticides and

chemicals can be applied with either ground or aerial application techniques.

Biocontrol and Biorational Control measures instead work to control larval popu-

lations by use of natural predators like predatory mosquito fish, Toxorhynchites mosquito

larvae, or pathogens (protozoan and nematodes). In several countries, there are national or

locally established laws and regulations regarding the application and implementation of

mosquito control methods; this is so-called Legal and Regulation Control. Usually, these

measures apply to larval and adult mosquito control or other public health issues directly

occurring within urban regions or cities.